Summary of history of world cup since 1930

The world cup was first held in 1930, when FIFA president and French Jules Rimet decided to stage an international football tournament. The inaugural edition, held in Uruguay in 1930, was contested as a final tournament of only 13 teams invited by the organization. Since then, the FIFA World Cup has experienced successive expansions and format remodeling to its current 32-team final tournament preceded by a two-year qualifying process, involving almost 200 teams from all over the world.

Year	Host		Winner	Score	Runner-up		Third place	Score	Fourth place		Number of teams
1930 Details	Uruguay		Uruguay	4–2	Argentina		United States	[note 1]	Yugoslavia		13
1934 Details	Italy		Italy	2–1 (aet)	Czechoslovakia		Germany	3–2	Austria		16
1938 Details	France		Italy	4–2	Hungary		Brazil	4–2	Sweden		16/15 [note 2]
1950 Details	Brazil		Uruguay	[note 3]	Brazil		Sweden	[note 3]	Spain		16/13 [note 4]
1954 Details	Switzerland		West Germany	3–2	Hungary		Austria	3–1	Uruguay		16
1958 Details	Sweden		Brazil	5–2	Sweden		France	6–3	West Germany		16
1962 Details	Chile		Brazil	3–1	Czechoslovakia		Chile	1–0	Yugoslavia		16
1966 Details	England		England	4–2 (aet)	West Germany		Portugal	2–1	Soviet Union		16
1970 Details	Mexico		Brazil	4–1	Italy		West Germany	1–0	Uruguay		16
1974 Details	West Germany		West Germany	2–1	Netherlands		Poland	1–0	Brazil		16
1978 Details	Argentina		Argentina	3–1 (aet)	Netherlands		Brazil	2–1	Italy		16
1982 Details	Spain		Italy	3–1	West Germany		Poland	3–2	France		24
1986 Details	Mexico		Argentina	3–2	West Germany		France	4–2 (aet)	Belgium		24
1990 Details	Italy		West Germany	1–0	Argentina		Italy	2–1	England		24
1994 Details	United States		Brazil	0–0 (3–2p)	Italy		Sweden	4–0	Bulgaria		24
1998 Details	France		France	3–0	Brazil		Croatia	2–1	Netherlands		32
2002 Details	South Korea &  Japan		Brazil	2–0	Germany		Turkey	3–2	South Korea		32
2006 Details	Germany		Italy	1–1 (5–3p)	France		Germany	3–1	Portugal		32
2010 Details	South Africa		Spain	1–0 (aet)	Netherlands		Germany	3–2	Uruguay		32

Revisiting the Tanzania-Uganda war that toppled Amin

Revisiting the Tanzania-Uganda war that toppled Amin

Ugandans call it the 1979 Liberation War while Tanzanians call it the Kagera War. Its seeds were sown as early as 1972 soon after the coup that brought Amin to power.
The relation between Uganda and Tanzania started going bad because Tanzania played host to more than 20,000 Ugandan exiles, according to documents in the TPDF museum.
The first attempt by Uganda exiles to overthrow Amin was on September 17, 1972 when a convoy of 77 trucks full of armed Ugandan exiles crossed into Uganda from Tanzania with the sole purpose of capturing Masaka and Mbarara towns. The mission failed when Amin’s air force intercepted the mission

In retaliation, Uganda jet fighters hit Bukoba and Mwanza towns in Tanzania. The two incidents were resolved by the October 1972 Mogadishu Agreement, where the two countries agreed to withdraw their forces 10km away from their respective borders.
However, according to the document “TPDF: An Operation History”, Amin’s ambition was to annex some northern parts of Tanzania for Uganda to have access to the sea through the port of Tanga. From the Ugandan perspective, this does not appear to have been the case.
On October 27, 1978 Ugandan forces carried out a surprise invasion of the Tanzanian territory, annexing the Kagera Salient (area north of Kagera River).

The area had been defended by the 202 Brigade commanded by Brig Gen Yusuf Himid. Within two days of the invasion, Ugandan troops occupied 1,850 sqkm of Tanzanian soil, after bombing Bukoba and Kyaka towns and blowing up the Kagera Bridge which connected the salient to the rest of Tanzania. Amin went ahead and announced that the Kagera Salient was now part of Ugandan territory.

Tanzania reacts
Tanzanian President Julius Nyerere’s first reaction was to seek a diplomatic solution to the conflict through the Organisation of the African Union (OAU) now African Union. When the OAU failed to act, President Nyerere on November 2, 1978 declared war on Uganda calling on the TPDF to defend the national sovereignty and integrity.
“The world must understand our reason for wanting to hit Amin hard. Sababu za kumpiga Amin tunazo, nia tunayo, na uwezo tunao” meaning “We have the reasons to hit Amin, we have the ability to hit him and we have the determination to hit him),” said Nyerere at the Diamond Jubilee Hall in Dar es Salaam as he formally declared war on Uganda.

Preparation for the war
Maj Gen Abdallah Twalipo was TPDF’s Chief of Defence Forces but the responsibility to respond to Amin’s invasion fell on Brig Gen Tumainieli Kiwelu who had to reorganise the army from different parts of the country. By then, TPDF had only one army division with four infantry brigades in different parts of the country.

Brigade 101st, nicknamed Nyuki (Bee) was based in Zanzibar, 302nd in Dar s Salaam, 202nd Faru in Tabora and 401 Tembo in Songea. The youth who had participated in National Service training were transformed into a reserve force; trained militias were prepared for battle, police and prisons personnel were mobilised, while the ordinary civilians offered food and livestock, private companies surrendered their vehicles to transport troops and hardware.
At the same time the Uganda exiles living in Tanzania also united to form the Uganda National Liberation Army, which included groups like FRONASA of Yoweri Museveni, Save Uganda Movement of Akena p’Ojok, Ateker Ejalu and William Omaria and Kikosi Maalum (Special Unit) led by Lt Col David Oyite Ojok and Col Tito Okello. They established a joint training camp of close to 1,200 recruits at Tarime near Musoma on the shores of Lake Victoria.

From Brig Gen Kiwule’s reorganisation, a 20th division was created with different brigades like Brigade 206th under Brig Gen Silas Mayunga – later taken over by Brig Gen Roland Makunda, 207th under Brig Gen Butler Walden and 208th under Brig Gen Mwita Marwa.
As the war progressed more brigades were formed, including 201st under Brig Gen Imran Kombe, 205th under Brig Gen Herman Lupogo – later taken over by Brig Gen Muhidin Kimario, Brigade Minziro under Brig Gen Takadiri Kitete and Brigade Kagera under Brig Gen Ramadhan Haji.
The overall commander of the operation was Brig Gen David Msuguri who was promoted to the rank of Maj Gen as Brig Gen Kiwelu went back to the headquarters as Chief of Staff. Within weeks, the TPDF had mobilised its numbers from 40,000 to 100,000.

Operation Chakaza
With his new responsibility to liberate Kagera Salient, Maj Gen Msuguri saw this as a personal battle with Amin, with whom he had served in the King’s African Rifle (KAR) during the colonial times. Msuguri’s thoughts soon after the appointment as documented in TPDF: An Operation History was: “I knew I was going to win the war. I knew him, he was a recruit at Kahawa Camp in Nakuru Kenya in 1949, and I was a corporal. Amin was a sportsman and a naughty soldier. Above all he put his personal agenda before that of the military”.
The first TPDF operation was codenamed “Operation Chakaza”.

There were no serious clashes when Operation Chakaza started and on December 4, 1978 the Tanzanian side of Mutukula had been recaptured by the Tanzanian forces and by early January 1979, all Uganda forces had been expelled from Tanzanian soil

The advance to the Ugandan border was planned along two axis; the main axis was along Kyaka- Mutukula road and the western axis was from Kyaka to Kakunyu The main axis was to take Masaka and proceed to Kampala and eastern Uganda while the second was to take Mbarara and seal off the Rwanda, Zaire (now DR Congo border) and move on to the Uganda-Sudan border.
With the fall of Mutukula, Amin’s forces regrouped at Sanje, 30km from Mutukula and gave the Tanzanian forces a hard time for two weeks. The rainy season made it hard for the TPDF making the movement of their equipment like the heavy trucks and amoured personnel carriers (APC)s almost impossible.

Fall of Masaka
Brigades 201, 205 and 208 were tasked with capturing Masaka and moved close to 100km fighting small battles along the way. At Kasasa, they met their first real test when Amin’s soldiers backed by the air force put up a real fight. TPDF deployed rocket propelled grenades (RPGs), 14.5mm anti-aircraft guns and SAM-7 missiles, shooting down two jet fighters, destroying two battle tanks and killing 24 Amin soldiers while TPDF lost two soldiers and 20 were wounded.
The next town was Kyotera where Maj Gen Msuguri assigned two brigades having got information that Amin’s forces had deployed heavily in the town.

ResistanceBrigade 201 blocked the road from Rakai to Lyantonde, while brigade 207 aka Amphibious, moved towards Bikira. When they entered Kyotera, Amin’s troops had already moved to Kalisizo. Plans for the assault on Kaliszo were drawn only to find the place deserted. TPDF took Kalisizo on February 20, 1979 without firing a shot. Amin’s troops had relocated to Kabuwoko hills.

When they took Kalisizo, TPDF knew Masaka was next but expected stiff resistance knowing that it would be heavily defended. TPDF knew the notorious Revolutionary Suicide Specialist Mechanised Regiment (RSSMR) units which invaded Tanzania to be based in Masaka.
Before the final assault on Masaka there were small fights around Kabuwoko and Kakondo hills, brigade 208 on its way to take Kiziba fell into an ambush of Ugandan troops withdrawing from Kalisizo.

Using BM-21 multiple rocket launcher, TPDF dislodged Amin’s men from their bases enabling brigade 208 to take Kiziba town. After Kiziba’s fall, they planned a final assault on Masaka Town.

The 40-barrel BM-21 multi-rocket launcher was nicknamed Saba-Saba by Ugandans. According to some of the Tanzanian field commanders, the word Saba-Saba was a Ugandan creation. Retired Maj Gen Ben Msuya says he first heard of the word when he entered Uganda.
“I was told that Ugandans were told that Tanzanians are firing from Saba-Saba in Dar es Salaam,” Maj Gen Msuya told this writer in Dar es Salaam in early April.
Saba-Saba is a trade show ground in Dar es Salaam and has no connection with the military.
Retired Col Isaac Mtemihonda, a former battalion commander, also said he first heard the BM-21 multi-rocket launcher being referred to as Saba-Saba while in Uganda.
He says “within the TPDF, the BM-21 was known as Baba Mtakatifu (Holy Father)”.

Brigades 201, 205 and 208 positioned themselves on the outskirts of Masaka Town and Brigade 207 under Brig Gen Butler Walden aka Black Mamba, attacked Masaka with a tank squadron from Mutukula side. At Kasijagirwa camp, the Uganda Army put up a stiff fight but they were eventually overpowered by TPDF’s 130mm guns and BM-21 multiple rocket launchers.

IDI AMIN’S REIGN
1971: Milton Obote toppled in coup led by Uganda army chief Idi Amin.

1972: Amin orders Asians who were not Ugandan citizens - around 60,000 people - to leave the country.

1972-73: Uganda engages in border clashes with Tanzania.

1976: Idi Amin declares himself president for life and claims parts of Kenya.

1978: Uganda invades Tanzania with a view of annexing Kagera region.

1979: Tanzania invades Uganda, unifying the various anti-Amin forces under the Uganda National Liberation Front and forcing Amin to flee the country; Yusufu Lule installed as president, but is quickly replaced by Godfrey Binaisa.To be continues

By Regnad Gervas

MD3,MUHAS

                            

'Three-parent babies' could be born in Britain next year

Britain is set to become the first country in the world to create babies with the DNA of three people after the government set out new draft regulations

Three parent babies could be created by using the DNA of a 'second mother' to fill in defective genetic material in an egg.

The first three-parent babies could be born by 2015 after the government set out new draft regulations which will allow donor DNA from a 'second mother' to be implanted into a defective egg.

The procedure, which was developed British scientists, is currently banned, but ministers want to change the law to prevent children suffering debilitating conditions like muscular dystrophy.

The Department of Health has launched a consultation on draft guidelines which is due to end in May.

Under the new rules, IVF (In-Vitro Fertilisation) clinics will be able to replace a baby's defective mitochondrial DNA with healthy DNA from a female donor's egg.

It is controversial because it would result in babies having DNA from three people.

While many doctors and scientists applaud the move, pointing out that it could eliminate terrible diseases, critics argue "mitochondrial transfer" could lead to designer babies.
Dr David King, director of the pressure group Human Genetics Alert, said: "If passed, this will be the first time any government has legalised inheritable human genome modification, something that is banned in all other European countries.
"The techniques have not passed the necessary safety tests so it is unnecessary and premature to rush ahead with legalisation.
"The techniques are unethical according to basic medical ethics, since their only advantage over standard and safe egg donation is that the mother is genetically related to her child. This cannot justify the unknown risks to the child or the social consequences of allowing human genome modification."
However most health experts and scientists have backed the government claiming it heralds a new era in genetic medicine.
Professor Peter Braude, head of obstetrics and gynaecology at King's College London, said: "I am pleased that the Government has been brave enough to follow through on their promises given during the 2008 revision of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Act, to bring before Parliament an option to help a small but deserving portion of society blighted with the spectre of transmitting mitochondrial disease to their children.
"Although rare, the effects of mitochondrial disease are devastating on those families, and the technology proposed will bring hope to those carrying the disorders.
"It is true that genetic alteration of disease risk is an important step for society and should not be taken lightly. However the proposed changes to the regulations ensure it will be limited to informed couples, who understand from sad personal experience the significant effects of their disease, and are best placed to balance the risks of the technology with the possibility of having children without mitochondrial disease."
Around one in every 200 babies born in the UK has a severe mitochondrial disease. Although rare, the disorders can be passed to future generations through the maternal line.
Examples of mitochondrial diseases include conditions that cause muscle wasting, nerve damage, loss of sight and heart failure.
Dr Jeremy Farrar, director of the Wellcome Trust, Britain's biggest research charity, said: "It is now almost a year since a major public consultation found broad support for the use of new IVF techniques for preventing mitochondrial diseases, so we are pleased that the Government has now published draft regulations that would permit this.
"Once further public consultation on the detail of these regulations is complete, we urge the Government to move swiftly so that Parliament can debate the regulations at the earliest opportunity and families affected by these devastating disorders can begin to benefit."
Doug Turnbull, Professor of Neurology at the University of Newcastle, said: "I am delighted that the Government has published the draft regulations. This is very good news for patients with mitochondrial DNA disease and an important step in the prevention of transmission of serious mitochondrial disease"
Robert Meadowcroft, chief executive of the Muscular Dystrophy Campaign, said: "News that the wait for proposed amendments to genetic research regulations to be shared with the public is over will be welcomed by many families living with mitochondrial disease.
"We have supported the Government's review of the mitochondrial transfer IVF technique throughout, in the firm belief that open, thorough and transparent dialogue is critical. However, it will soon be two years since the initial consultation with the public was announced and three since the review began.
"There have been lengthy waits at every stage, and we now call on the Government to ensure that regulations are passed before the next general election, so that the technique can be moved towards clinical trials as soon as possible."

He added: "Encouragingly, we have seen that, when given in-depth information, the majority of people in the UK are broadly supportive of this technology. We now need to see a prompt, efficient discussion with the public on the rules that will govern how it is taken forward."

The new consultation is not to debate whether mitochondrial transfer should be allowed, but how it should be implemented.
Once the rules are brought in, it will be up to the fertility regulator, the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA), to decide whether a treatment can go ahead on a case-by-case basis.
Mitochondrial transfer will only be allowed when there is a "significant risk" of disability or serious illness.

Children born after mitochondrial transfer will not be entitled to discover the identity of the "third parent" donor.
Liz Curtis, from the Lily Foundation, which funds research into mitochondrial diseases, said: "The publication today of the draft regulations is welcomed by The Lily Foundation. We meet too many families on a daily basis whose worlds have been turned upside down by the devastating effects of mitochondrial diseases.

"These IVF techniques will eradicate mitochondrial disease for some families, offering the opportunity to have a healthy child. We hope the approval will not take too long, so these families can benefit from this as soon as possible and hopefully see a little light at the end of a dark tunnel."

THE EFFECT OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES/EXERCISE ON OVERWEIGHT,OBESITY OR TYPE 2 DIABETES

The proportion of working adults with sedentary occupation in Sub Saharan Africa has considerably increased. Physical activities/exercise could be an alternative of inactivity related illnesses(Mashili F et al)

OBESITY

Obesity can be defined as an excess of body fat. A surrogate marker for body fat content is the body mass index (BMI), which is calculated as:

BMI = Weight in kg/Height m2

A BMI between 25 and 29.9 kg/m2 is called overweight, and a BMI greater than 30 kg/m2 is

called obese.

When greater quantities of energy (in the form of food) enter the body than are used, the body weight increases, and most of the excess energy is stored as fat.

The causes of obesity are complex. Although genes play an important role in determining food intake and energy metabolism, lifestyle and environmental factors may play the dominant role in many obese people. The rapid increase in the prevalence of obesity in the past 20 to 30 years emphasizes the important role of lifestyle and environmental factors, because genetic changes

could not have occurred so rapidly.

1.Sedentary Lifestyle Is a Major Cause of Obesity. Regular physical activity and physical training are known to increase muscle mass and decrease body fat mass, whereas inadequate physical activity is typically associated with decreased muscle mass and increased adiposity. For example, studies have shown a close association between sedentary behaviors, such as prolonged television watching, and obesity.

2.Abnormal Feeding Behavior Is an Important Cause of Obesity. Although powerful physiologic mechanisms regulate food intake, there are also important environmental and psychological factors that can cause abnormal feeding behavior, excessive energy intake, and obesity.

3.Childhood Overnutrition as a Possible Cause of Obesity. One factor that may contribute to obesity is the prevalent idea that healthy eating habits require three meals a day and that each meal must be filling. Many young children are forced into this habit by overly solicitous

parents, and the children continue to practice it throughout life. The rate of formation of new fat cells is especially rapid in the first few years of life, and the greater the rate of fat storage, the greater the number of fat cells. The number of fat cells in obese children is often as

much as three times that in normal children. Therefore, it has been suggested that overnutrition of children— especially in infancy and, to a lesser extent, during the later years of childhood—can lead to a lifetime of obesity.

4.Genetic Factors as a Cause of Obesity. Obesity definitely runs in families.

Obesity is one major causes/Risk factors of type 2 diabetes others being age,ethinicity and family history.

TYPE 2 DIABETES

Type 2 diabetes is relatively common in all populations enjoying an affluent lifestyle.

A major factor leading to increased rates of type 2 diabetes is inactivity. Physical exercise is critical in the prevention of type 2 diabetes.

Diabetes Complications

1. Leading cause of blindness
2. Leading cause of kidney failure
3. Leading cause of amputations
   

   • People with diabetes are 25 times more likely to loose a foot than people without diabetes
   • More than one million people loose a leg every year due to diabetes that means that every 30 seconds one person loose a leg somewhere in the world
   • 70% of all amputation happen to people with diabetes
   • 5 years after the amputation of the lower limb up to 70% of people may have died.
4. Major cause of heart attacks
5. Major cause of strokes

EFFECTS OF EXERCISE/PHYSICAL ACTIVITIES ON PEOPLE WHO ARE OVERWEIGHT,OBESE AND TYPE 2 DIABETES

In a study done by Mashili et al to investigate the effect of leisure time physical activity on metabolic profile in overweight,obese and type 2 diabetes adults,resident of Dar es salaam city in Tanzania where the relationship between physical activity and metabolic variables was assessed. They found that Cholesterol level,fasting glucose level,blood pressure and resting heart rate improved significantly in obese and type 2 diabetes people after six weeks of participaion in leisure time physical activity.

HOW?

Exercise induce an alternative pathway for glucose uptake instead of using insulin!!

Under Basal Conditions GLUT4 is Primarily Intracellular but during exercise these intracellural receptors expressed on the cell surface membrane.

People with type 2 diabetes are advised to have aerobic physical activities of about 150minutes/week this will help them for the same reason explained above.

Trust your doctor, not Wikipedia, say scientists

By Pippa Stephens Health reporter, BBC News

 Scientists compared Wikipedia entries with peer-reviewed medical research

Wikipedia, the online encyclopaedia, contains errors in nine out of 10 of its health entries, and should be treated with caution, a study has said.

Scientists in the US compared entries about conditions such as heart disease, lung cancer, depression and diabetes with peer-reviewed medical research.
They said most articles in Wikipedia contained "many errors".
Wikimedia UK, its British arm, said it was "crucial" that people with health concerns spoke to their GP first.

 Open-access 'concerns'

The online encyclopaedia is a charity, and has 30 million articles in 285 languages.

It can be edited by anybody, but many volunteers from the medical profession check the pages for inaccuracies, said Wikimedia UK.
The open-access nature has "raised concern" among doctors about its reliability, as it is the sixth most popular site on the internet, the US authors of the research, published in the Journal of the American Osteopathic Association, said.
Up to 70% of physicians and medical students use the tool, they say.
The 10 researchers across America looked at online articles for 10 of the "most costly" conditions in the US, including osteoarthritis, back problems and asthma.
They printed off the articles on 25 April 2012 to analyse, and discovered that 90% of the entries made statements that contradicted latest medical research.

“Start Quote

Wikipedia, like any encyclopaedia, should not take the place of a qualified medical practitioner”

Stevie Benton Wikimedia UK

Lead author Dr Robert Hasty, of the Wallace School of Osteopathic Medicine in North Carolina, said: "While Wikipedia is a convenient tool for conducting research, from a public health standpoint patients should not use it as a primary resource because those articles do not go through the same peer-review process as medical journals."

Dr Hasty added the "best resource" for people worried about their health was their doctor.

Contact GP 'first'

Stevie Benton, at Wikimedia UK, said there were a "number of initiatives" in place to help improve the articles, "especially in relation to health and medicine".
He said the charity had a project to bring together volunteer Wikipedia editors with a medical knowledge to identify articles that need improvement, find credible sources and make entries more "accurate and more readable".
Mr Benton said Wikipedia was also working with Cancer Research UK to review cancer-related articles by clinical researchers and writers to keep them accurate and up-to-date.
But he added: "However, it is crucial that anybody with concerns over their health contacts their GP as a first point of call. Wikipedia, like any encyclopaedia, should not take the place of a qualified medical practitioner."
Wikipedia also expressed concern at the small sample size used in the research, as it may not be representative.

The study did not account for Wikipedia leaving out important information.

Alien Planets Like Earth

Alien Planets Like Earth [2014 Documentary] NEW
Habitable alien planets similar to Earth may not be that rare in the universe, a new study suggests.

About one in five sunlike stars observed by NASA's planet-hunting Kepler spacecraft has an Earth-size planet in the so-called habitable zone, where liquid water — and, potentially life — could exist, according to the new study. If these results apply elsewhere in the galaxy, the nearest such planet could be just 12 light-years away.

"Human beings have been looking at the stars for thousands of years," said study researcher Erik Petigura, a graduate student at the University of California, Berkeley (UC Berkeley). "How many of those stars have planets that are in some way like Earth?

Understand the neurochemistry of sex!why do we feel bad after sex??why do we cheat?

 Understand the neurochemistry of sex

Orgasm is generally regarded as the ultimate goal of recreational sex. Wilhelm Reich was the first scientist to describe the nature and purpose of the orgasm as a discharge of excess bio-energy with the additional liberation of feeling energy, and he also recognized the negative consequences of blocked sexual energies.

Unfortunately, in addition to exciting peaks, orgasms tend to produce powerful negative side-effects that are only now becoming better understood. This is due to predictable trends in hormonal activity which seem to be similar in all mammals to ensure certain evolutionary objectives, especially the wide mixing of gene pools and the safe raising of offspring. This is achieved with the following neurochemical changes.

The main players are dopamine, the reward hormone; prolactin, the hormone of satiation; oxytocin, the cuddle hormone, and levels of androgen receptors, which all powerfully affect our mood, our desire for intimacy, our perception of our mate, as well as our susceptibility to addictive activities and substances. These hormones can also have different but generally related functions.

Additionally the stimulant phenylethylamine (PEA) is involved, which is also present in cocoa and chocolate and elevates energy, mood and attention. PEA is produced in greater amounts when one is in love; conversely a deficiency (common in manic-depressives) causes unhappy feelings.

When we first fall in love we become bonded by rising PEA, oxytocin and dopamine levels When we are sexually aroused by close contact our dopamine level rises further and at the time of orgasm we have a dopamine brainstorm which one researcher compared to the effects of heroin on the brain. Dopamine is active in all addictions, even in people who have forgotten what sex is. Most of this activity is in the limbic system, the oldest part of the brain.

After orgasm dopamine levels fall sharply with the usual withdrawal symptoms. This reaction tends to be immediate in males and delayed in females. Also prolactin levels rise, and androgen receptors fall after orgasm. Low testosterone is associated with irritability and anger. In sexually-satiated rats it has been shown that serotonin and endorphin levels also rise, and this also decreases dopamine and raises prolactin levels. Oxytocin levels fall after conventional orgasm but remaining in close contact may help to counter this drop and sustain oxytocin levels.

Behavioral changes from this disturbed hormone equilibrium have been noticed for up to two weeks. During this time we may be more irritable, dissatisfied, anxious or depressed, and instead of seeing the good side of our mate, we may now be painfully aware of his or her shortcomings. This is exactly the same process and length of time prolactin levels need to recover during withdrawal from cocaine. 

Initially, during the honeymoon period of our relationship, we remain strongly bonded by high oxytocin levels, and quickly overcome our hormonal blues by having more sex. Initially sex stimulates us to crave for more sex. This leads to rapid rises and falls in dopamine levels and corresponding rapid emotional fluctuations in our relationship. Later we become less and less interested in sex with our partner (perhaps because we subconsciously begin to associate him or her with the “lows” of the cycle, or perhaps because we grow tired of being used as a fix, and therefore feel less attraction), and now we try to prop up our dopamine level by becoming addicted to some kind of food or drug, or by becoming interested in a new sexual partner. Basically this type of behavior is the same for humans, primates, mammals and reptiles because it originates from the primitive part of our brain.

To be continued!!!!